Notes and sources

(1 ) Act only according to that maxim whereby you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law." From I. Kant: Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, Akademie-Ausgabe Kant Werke IV, (1781, 421).

(2) Extensive explanations on heteronomy and self-determination are provided by Peter Bieri, Das Handwerk der Freiheit, chapter 11, "Facetten der Selbstbestimmung" (2011, 416-430). In his book Peter Bieri provides an extremely multi- faceted description of freedom, a freedom that is not simply given to us but a freedom we must develop.

(3) The richness of alternatives may be greater than I think. (.)Such freedom is in the existence and not in the knowledge of the possibilities. (.) One could call it objective freedom." (Bieri 2011, 46-47)

(4) Bieri emphasizes that creating an inner distance is necessary to be able to make decisions. Then the following happens: "By reflecting the possibilities in my fantasy I give up the critical distance and accept the preferred wish and its fulfillment through the action" (Bieri 2011, 72).

(5) Valuable insights into the world of feelings, which exert great influence on our decisions, are provided by the experienced psychologist Susan Forward in: Emotionale Erpressung. She suggests in her book that feelings are not the short-lived, independent forces for which they are often held. They are a response to what you think. Beliefs imparted by influential persons - parents, teachers, role models, close friends - in all stages of life play an important role. These beliefs are the source of feelings. (cf.. Forward 2000, 237).

(6) Einstein was not worried over the fact that man acts not only out of external but also out of inner necessity; that the human will is therefore not free but rather determined by a variety of causes. On the contrary, he saw this as an inexhaustible source of tolerance and humor: "The quote by Schopenhauer that: 'Man can do what he wants, but he cannot want what he wants' has fulfilled me with joy since my youth and always been comforting and an inexhaustible source of tolerance for me when I experienced and witnessed hardships in my life. This awareness softens the sometimes paralyzing sense of responsibility in a pleasant way and makes us take ourselves and the others not too seriously; it leads to an attitude to life which particularly gives humor its due". (Einstein 2005, 9).

(7) "You can do what you will, but in any given moment of your life you can will only one definite thing and absolutely nothing other than that one thing." Arthur Schopenhauer: Preisschrift über die Freiheit des Willens. In: Arthur Schopenhauer: Werke in 10 Bänden. Hg. v. Arthur Hübscher. Bd. 6. (1977, 62).

(8) For the avowed non-naturalist philosopher Julian Nida-Rümelin, "freedom is conditional, it is not unconditional." It is "man's specific freedom to weigh reasons for and against and act accordingly." (2005, 158).  "Freedom of will is therefore the distinguishing mark of a successful weighing of practical reasons for and against. The weighing of reasons is successful if the better reasons determine the action." (2005, 89). From: Julian Nida-Rümelin: Über menschliche Freiheit (About human freedom).

(9) The meaningful issue of objective responsibility for an act must not be confused with the illusionary issue of a culprit's subjective responsibility. Here is also the difference between global humanistic ethics and dogmatic morality. See also Michael Schmidt-Salomon: Jenseits von Gut und Böse. (2009, 197ff).

(10) Studies show that the internalized inclination towards aggression is completed by the 6th year of life and remains stable until adult age. (see Dornes 1997, 269f).

(11) A detailed summary of the stages of development towards to a serial killer is found in Stephan Harbort. (2009, 299ff).

(12) The distinction between subjective morality and an objective ethical or juristic guilt concept leads to the distinction between guilt feelings and feelings of regret. An important impetus for personal development is to feel regret; feelings of guilt block personal development. The psychologist Doris Wolf describes the consequences of this difference: "To feel guilt paralyzes and consumes energy, but to feel regret helps to become active. We maintain our self-respect". (Wolf 1996, 12).

(13) Three aspects of a penal system that does not rely on the thesis of free will are the function of the punishment, the way the culprit is treated, and the importance of crime prevention. (see Schmidt-Salomon 2009, 281ff).

(14) E.g. in the Gospel of John (Jn 8.44) Jesus said to the Jews: "You are of your father the devil, and the desires of your father you want to do. He was a murderer from the beginning, and does not stand in the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he speaks a lie, he speaks from his own resources, for he is a liar and the father of it." (Katholische Bibelanstalt 1973).

(15) "And because the predestination is in and of itself no evil, even the predestination of our free will can be no evil." The subsequent dialog in Bieri's book also makes reference to this subject. (see Bieri 2009, 315ff).

(16) "A loss of authorship would be equivalent with a loss of the freedom." (Bieri 2009, 193).

(17) G. Mead makes particular reference to that. (see 1968, 180).

(18) See Bernhard Kegel: Epigenetik. Wie Erfahrungen vererbt werden. (2009).

(19) "Just the idea of who we could have been if we had lived elsewhere, in another country, a different climate, a different language, can change our identity." (Bieri 2009, 70).

The strong influence culture can have on a person's identity is illustrated by Andy Clark und David J. Calmers in "Der erweiterte Geist (The extended mind)" from Thomas Metzinger's Grundkurs Philosophie des Geistes Band 3, (2010, 516):

"For example, the degradation of a person's environment may in some cases have the same moral significance as the degradation of the person himself. And if this viewpoint is taken seriously, some forms of social activity can be regarded not so much as something resembling communication and action but as something resembling thinking."

(20) See the memoirs of Schein Elyse and Bernstein Paula: Identical Strangers. (2007).

(21) The French neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene is a pioneer of a theory of consciousness. He focuses on the signatures of conscious thought. (see Dehaene 2014).

(22) A detailed investigation of human experiencing in the here and now is provided by Eva Ruhnau in her paper "Zeit-Gestalt und Beobachter; Betrachtung des tertium datur des Bewusstseins", enthalten in Thomas Metzinger: Bewusstsein. Beiträge aus der Gegenwartsphilosophie. (2005, 201ff):

"The brain creates itself and is structured by adirectional temporal zones or simultaneity windows. In relation to the outside time such 'time windows' appear as quantas of time whose duration (about 30-40 msec) is characteristic of the system and which as a rule cannot be less on an equal functional level." Moreover, "Temporal integration of successive temporal windows - the Now: Experimental data shows that an automatic temporal integration process links several successive time windows (of 30 msec) together, up to intervals of approximately 3 seconds, providing the foundation for the formation of perceptual units. Such processes constitute the formal basis of the experienced 'Now'. If two stimulus intensities are compared in the psycho-physical experiment, they must be provided within 2-3 seconds in order to obtain valid statements. Experiments in which predefined periods of time are reproduced, overestimation of short time intervals and underestimation of longer intervals was seen. The indifference interval, i.e. that length of time which is best reproduced, is approximately 3 seconds. Time segments up to the length of the indifference interval are observed in speech processing and in temporal organization of intentional acts. All these results provide clear evidence that the conscious Now is - language and culture independent - of the duration of approximately 3 seconds. The experienced Now is not a point, but is extended." p. 204f.

Also, Eva Ruhnau reports that the availability of information in the brain must be seen as simultaneously periodically. "Over the last few years experimental work has shown a rhythmic synchronization of neural cells in the gamma frequency band (30-60 Hz) caused by stimuli." (2005, 208).

(23) "Phenomenal Self model", "consciousness tunnel", ego and mentalness are described in detail by Thomas Metzinger. (2009a, 18f; 25; 154).

(24) Consciousness and the flux of subjective experience as a functionality of the human brain can be understood as "providing, periodically, a large amount of preselected and pre-evaluated information simultaneously via neural structures". It is assumed that a meaningful evaluation of a situation or an object is only possible if large amounts of partial information are simultaneously available from oscillatory signals and a relation between them can be established. In this process, pre-evaluated neural information is an essential component, for example feelings, pain, and color perception, because it is very important in evolutionary terms and for human survival. Making this comprehensive information simultaneously available and putting it in relation can be understood as "consciousness". Therefore "zombies", i.e. creatures that have the same evaluation structure and thus an "intellect" but no consciousness, are unthinkable. 

A consciousness without a material basis is unthinkable. However, the result of a deliberate act can be better understood if we look for purposes.

In his book Der Ego-Tunnel (2009a),  Thomas Metzinger describes the flux of conscious subjective experience as a "virtual tunnel through reality" created by the evolution that has little to do with reality. The "self" is no independent reality; it emerges from the human brain. Insights and knowledge about the outside world are only possible through the formation of scientific communities that establish theories, checking themselves continually.

I would like to refer to Rupert Riedl's book "Biologie der Erkenntnis", in which he presents the concept of four causes in all living organisms. In the 3rd edition, on p. 165, he argues that in the sphere of influence of living organisms the efficient cause acts permanently as a force, the "final cause" as a purpose, and "material" and "formal" causes act from layer to layer.

Let it be understood that "final cause" is not seen as a teleological cause functioning along the time axis but rather as a teleonomic cause that is at work in the effective direction of layer building in complex organic systems. Thus reasons are made understandable without leaving out material causes. Just as, in my opinion, it is not possible to "physically" explain Qualia, i.e. color perception, pain or feelings. In this respect Riedl argues that in biological evolution large quantities lead to new qualities, which cannot solely be explained by the efficient cause and the material cause in the layer system of living organisms. To explain it sufficiently, additionally the final cause (purpose) and formal cause are required. In the human brain, the final cause may have led to human consciousness including the intellect and feeling perception, and the formal cause to the provision of a multitude of oscillation-triggered valuated information units.

(25) See Dieter Birnbacher's paper "Künstliches Bewusstsein" in Thomas Metzinger: Bewusstsein. Beiträge aus der Gegenwartsphilosophie. (Metzinger 2005, 713ff).

A comprehensive treatise on artificial intelligence and its potential impact on humanity is found in Nick Bostrom: Superintelligenz. Szenarien einer kommenden Revolution. (2014)

(26) Other examples of how to extensively develop our identity from new circumstances are found in Michael Schmidt-Salomon. (2009,  274).

(27) The realization that all characteristics attributed to "me" can ultimately only be understood in the context of the universe and thus leads to disillusionment of an autonomous "me" can lead to an extreme version of the flow experience.  (see. Schmidt-Salomon 2009, 244).

A wonderful approach to this issue is provided by Thich Nhat Hanh in his book: Körper und Geist in Harmonie: Die Heilkraft buddhistischer Psychologie. (2009).

In his book Versuchung des Bösen Thomashoff comes to the conclusion that this "flow" is caused by the switching off the areas in the brain's frontal lobes that are necessary for self-perception. (2009, 61).

(28) Notes on the mysticism of Oneness can be found in the Gospel of John, for example. In the Gospel according to John (John 14:17-20) Jesus says to the Apostles: "It is the Spirit of truth, whom the world cannot receive, because it neither sees him nor knows him. You know Him, for He dwells with you and will be with you. I will not leave you as orphans; I will come to you.  Yet a little while and the world will see me no more, but you will see me. Because I live, you also will live. In that day you will know that I am in my Father, and you in me, and I in you." Jesus referred to his resurrection in this context. (vgl. Katholische Bibelanstalt 1973).

(29) As a deep secret the Brahmins teach mystical oneness of the souls of all beings and things with the universal soul. According to this mysticism the universal soul contains the mental. Man carries within him the universal soul. As all beings contain the universal soul, man finds his self in all beings, in plants and gods alike. This is the meaning of the famous "Tat tvam asi" (You are that) in the Upanishads. The Kaivalya-Upanishad says: "By seeing the self in all beings, and all beings in the self, one attains the transcendental Brahman, not by any other means."  Albert Schweitzer: Die Weltanschauung der indischen Denker. (1965, 26).

(30) See the book: The wild boy from Aveyron von J. M. G. Itard (1932); the author raised the boy.

(31) Hans-Christoph Koller should be mentioned on behalf of many other authors. Hans-Christoph Koller: Grundbegriffe, Theorien und Methoden der Erziehungswissenschaft. Eine Einführung. (2014).

(32) More than anyone the sociologist Emile Durkheim shows in a very comprehensive study on suicide the necessity of social integration for every human being.

In his book "The Suicide" Durkheim explores, on the basis of statistical data, the different suicide rates among Catholics, Protestants and Jews. He shows that suicide rates are higher among Protestants than Catholics and Jews. He concludes that Catholic society has higher levels of integration than Protestant society. For the Jews he notes that persecution led to a high sense of solidarity.

Durkheim also found a correlation between suicide rates and economic crises. In periods of economic crisis suicide rates increase. But also in times of economic boom suicide rates increase. In situations where society relies heavily on individuals, for example in times of war, suicide rates go down. In periods of social disintegration, when the group or society attachment of the individual is generally weaker, a situation of crisis develops. The decisive factor is that during economic crises individuals can experience social isolation against their will, whereas they even wish to be independent during periods of economic boom.

Suicides are also higher in men, at an advanced age, in widows, singles or divorcees, people without children, in large cities, under conditions of high population density, high standard of living, economic crisis, alcohol consumption, a childhood in broken families, mental disorders and physical illness.

Generally, a relative increase suicide rates for women is registered, which is associated to the fact that women's lifestyle increasingly resembles men's lifestyle and their increase in life expectancy.

Suicides rates among blacks in the United States are far lower and murder rates are higher than among whites, which casts light on their different situations. Increased suicide rates are also found among students. The highest suicide rates are found in orthodox universities where the living conditions are the least comparable to those of non-students (Oxford). (see Durkheim 1973).

(33) This assertion is very well documented by the case studies on feral children. About forty such cases are known. It is believed that such children were either abandoned or lost. They were then taken care of and raised by wolves, bears, goats, pigs, sheep, cattle, leopards or managed to survive by their own effort.

These children were without exception mute, moved on all fours, had highly developed sensory organs, no sense of shame of nakedness, and in general showed no sense of sexuality. They resemble animals in all aspects of their behavior and appearance. They have virtually no intellectual abilities, and it is believed that they remained underdeveloped due to sensory deprivation at a young age. (see Anastasi 1976 Bd. 2, 115ff).

(34) On culture of discussion see Michael Schmidt Salomon, Jenseits von Gut und Böse. (2009, 266).

(35) "If happiness and fulfillment of meaning were actually linked to love and knowledge, respect for life and deep knowledge of the real relationships in the world, the history of mankind, the sum of the pursuit of happiness by the individuals, would undoubtedly have taken a different course." (Schmidt-Salomon 2009, 234).

(36) This corresponds approximately to the position of "evolutionary humanism" as described by Michael Schmidt-Salomon: Manifest des evolutionären Humanismus. (2006).

In the last chapter of his book Gottes Güte und die Übel der Welt, (1992, S377ff) Gerhard Streminger describes an approach to actively allay misery and provides an outline on the good life. A few key points are:

-           Redistribution of wealth between rich and poor countries

-           Birth control

-           A better lifestyle where the inhabitants of rich countries live better with fewer consumer goods

-           Expect the right things from life. Many of the best things in life are free

-           Sustainable use of natural resources

-           Avoid a questionable morality that makes life difficult, for example by demonizing reason, praising ignorance as a virtue, misrepresents curiosity as sin, demonizes Eros

-           Avoid a pseudo-reality that promotes the suffering of the people, including hypothetical causes like god, soul, ego, mind, free will, sin; and hypothetical effects such as sin, salvation, grace, punishment, forgiveness of sins.

[Author's note: From my view 'hypothetical' causes and effects could be replaced by 'unreflected' causes and effects]

(37) Mereology: The study of part-whole relations.